Chapter
15: Other Descriptive Research Methods
l Developmental
research
l Case
study
l Job
analysis
l Observational
research
l Correlational
studies
Developmental
Research
l Is
the study of changes in behaviors across years.
l Infancy,
childhood, adolescence, as well as, elderly.
The total human life span.
l Longitudinal
– follow same individuals over time
l Cross-sectional
– select different participants at each age level
Longitudinal
designs
l Are
time-consuming
l Drop
out rate
l Participants
become increasingly familiar with the test items
l Items
may cause a change in behavior
Cross-Sectional
Studies
l Are
less time-consuming
l A
cohort problem exists: are the environmental circumstances the same for all the
cohorts
l Either
the longitudinal or cross-sectional studies can also be experimental as well as
developmental (covered in chapter 17)
Methodological Problems of Developmental Research
l Unrepresented
scores:
Called outliers
Occur in all research but more common in developmental research (children
and seniors)
Caused from shorter attention spans, distraction, and lack of motivation to
do the task.
Plan the testing session within a reasonable time
Prevent distractions
Retest when one occurs
Unclear Semantics
Using words that the children will understand
Understanding what is expected of them must be a concern
Lack of reliability
In younger children’s response
Performances should be the same when retested
Motivate
Statistical Problems
For cross-sectional studies use ANOVA
For longitudinal studies an ANOVA with repeated measures
Protecting
Participants
Parents or Guardians must grant permission for minors to participate in the
study
Informed consent forms are for the parents or guardians, but if the child
is old enough to understand a copy of the informed consent form should be given
to them as well.
Case
Studies
The researcher does an in-depth study of a single situation, or phenomena,
or individual.
Used in anthropology, clinical psychology, sociology, medicine, political
science,k speech pathology, and various educational areas.
It is being used more in health sciences, exercise science, sport science
and physical education.
The case study is not inferential.
It does not make generalizations .
A number of case studies can help researcher develop a theory that could be
studied through group research.
Can be used with institutions, programs, organizations, communities, and
situations.
Types
of Case Studies
Descriptive Studies: Detailed
picture of the phenomenon with no attempt to test or build theoretical models.
Serve as an initial step or database for subsequent research.
Interpretive Studies: Major focus
is on interpretation in an effort to classify or conceptualize the information,
and possibly theorize.
Evaluative Studies: Involves
description and interpretation, but the primary purpose is to use the data to
evaluate the merit of some practice, program, movement, or event.
Case
Study Participants
Random sampling not used.
The researcher establishes the criteria necessary to include in the study
and then finds the sample that meets the criteria
Characteristics
of the Case Study
Similar to historical research in that it collects and analyzes many
sources of information
Case study provides insight and knowledge of a general nature for
improvement of practices.
Gathering
and Analyzing Data
Very flexible
Steps in methodology are not distinct or uniform for all case studies.
Can use interviews, observations, or documents.
Analysis of data is difficult due to the large amount of data, and the
nature of the data that has to be sorted, categorized, and interpreted.
Job
Analysis
Is a type of Case Study
Designed to determine the nature of a particular job, the types of
training, preparation, and skills, working conditions, and attitudes necessary
for success in the job.
Methods used:
Observation – time consuming, but recommended
Questionnaires and interviews –
Systematic job analysis techniques can result in highly specific and
quantitative descriptions of the job.
Ergonomics
Observational
Research
Provides a means of collecting data by observing peoples behavior and
qualitatively or quantitatively analyze the observations.
The Questionnaire and interview are the participant’s self-report.
Methods
of Observational Research
Behaviors to be observed – operationally defined
Who will be observed is part of the sampling method
The Setting – natural or unnatural, observer participation, behavior
related to setting.
Number of observations – related to time constraints and the behaviors
Scoring the Observations:
Computer assisted
Narrative, or continual recording – records in sentences as they happen;
slowest, least efficient
Tallying, or frequency counting – record each occurrence of a certain
behavior in a certain period.
Interval method – does the certain behavior occur in a certain time period
Duration method – A timed behavior by using a stop-watch or other timing
device to record how much time an individual spends engaged in a certain
behavior
Videotape
for Observation
Can observe many students simultaneously
Can take time recording the occurrences of specific behaviors
Must set up the camera so that there is sufficient field of view, while
being able to see the behavior.
Proper lighting, etc.
Weaknesses of Observational Research
Operationally defined behaviors
Using observation forms effectively requires much practice
Trying to observe too many things
Certain behaviors cannot be evaluated as finely as some observation forms
dictate.
Presence of the observer
Unobtrusive
Measures
The Experimenter is not present, usually, when the data are produced.
Library withdrawals, turnstyles, birth certificates, political or judicial
records, inscriptions on tombstones, etc.
The participants are unaware of the researcher
The ethical issue of invasion of privacy arises in some forms of
unobtrusive measures.
Correlational
Research
Explores relationships that exist among variables.
Sometimes predictions are made on the basis of the relationships.
Cannot determine cause and effect.
No manipulation of variables or experimental treatments
Steps in Correlational research
Problem is first defined and delimited
Selection of the variables to be correlated
Participants are selected from the parent
population; the sample must be representative of the parent population,
otherwise predictions cannot be valid
The size of the correlation coefficient
depends on the spread of the scores.
The more similar the subjects in the study
the more similar are the scores on the variables; not enough variability to
determine relationship