v Chapter 28- India, Islam, Africa Overview:

Ø Impact of European encroachment on rest of world

§ Radical & devastating changes on India, Asia, & Africa

§ Contrasted with spiritual & material change in West

· Intro by Renaissance, Enlightenment, Industrialism

· East change much more rapid & disruptive than West’s

Ø Modernization fails to accurately describe complex process

§ West’s changes much more gradual & better prepared

§ Also West embraced & appropriated concept as its own

· ultimately to be imposed on the “backward” Orient

· impact of this imposition was dramatic global change

¨ Political, economic, social, & cultural change

§ Stereotypical western attitudes toward “Third World”*=>

· Reinforced European & North American attitudes=>

¨ Chauvinistic, racists, & superior western mindset

· Truly modern West destined to dominate rest of world

· Impose modernizations’ material & spiritual influences

Ø Impact of western imperialism on 3^rd world’s recent history

§ Shaped much of India, Asia, &Africa’s recent development

· Who responded to Western imperialism in diverse ways

· Mixed results in creatively meeting challenge of West

§ Post-colonial experience => wide range of responses

Ø Modern West’s interaction w/ancient cultures & traditions

§ Although western modernization had significant impact=>

§ “3^rd world” was not just “blank slate” when West arrived

§ Well established social, religious, & political society alive

§ Islamic, Hindu, & others maintained continuity w/its past

· So Asia & Africa also shaped by own historic traditions

v The Indian Experience (Map)

Ø Building dominance and colonial rule

§ British dominance established during 18^th century

· Power over people in & around Indian Ocean

· Overshadowed Portugal & Holland

· Defeated France in Indian sub-continent

· By early 1800s built largest colonial empire

¨ Dominated Afro-Asian world

¨ India under direct British colonial rule

Ø British empire’s “jewel in the crown”

§ Building the Empire- first half of 19^th century

· Political role of British East India Company

¨ Demand for military “protection” taxes

Ø Impact: collapse or rebellion of smaller states

¨ Independent status depended on loyalty & taxes paid

¨ Elite often colluded with Brits against local rulers

Ø Mysore, Maratha confederation, & Punjabi Sikhs

Ø Large mix of contributory states under British

· Economic impact of East India Company

¨ Exploit Indian land $$ to pay for military actions

Ø Demands forced many peasants to abandon farms

Ø By 1830s=> land revenues in sharp decline

· Economy also strained by reduced demand in trade

¨ Indian indigo, cotton & opium in China-Brit trade

¨ Result: widespread famine & suffering

· Company policies & impact on India’s environment

¨ Aim: settled agriculture &small commodity products

Ø Came at expense of nomadic & pastoral culture

¨ “Pacification” & its impact on India’s forests

Ø ecological trade-off for efficient colonial admin

· Indian response during first half of 19^th century

¨ Resistance & revolt throughout region-various times

¨ Indian Revolt of 1857 vs. Bengali Sepoy “mutiny”

Ø What’s in a name? ( a matter of Brit terminology

Ø Revolt’s immediate trigger vs. the primary issue?

§ Animal grease vs. Sikhs, Gurkhas, & low castes

· + Deteriorating economic status of Hindus

· Excessive tax rates

· British annexation of Awadh (troops’ home)

§ Greater strategic motive: recover & rebuild

· Focus: centered around Delhi & spread

Ø Who won & why? (divide & conquer)

§ British military & political actions taken?

· Role of Sikhs & Gurkha & Company’s status

§ British-Indian Relations

· Impact of British rule on Indian masses:

¨ Harsh but impersonal & largely economic

¨ Integrated into economy as market for Brit goods

Ø What did India exchange for British products?

· British involvement into India’s internal affairs?

¨ Politics, education, civil-service, comm. & transport

¨ Consequences of Brit domination & exploitation?

¨ British efforts to influence Indian culture & religion?

Ø British attitude toward missionaries before 1840?

· Enduring dimension: paternalistic & patronizing

¨ British master over Indian servant

Ø Stark unequal division & and racial imbalance

§ Regardless of Indian talent or ability

§ Upper ranks of command always reserved

· Impact of this unequal relationship on Indian elite

¨ Besides frustration & resentment – what else?

¨ Impact of British liberalism on educated classes?

Ø Christian values &secular ideas of Enlightenment

¨ Role of Ram Mohan Roy & the voice of reform:

Ø Hindu life & practices (sati?) to Brahman rituals

Ø Conflicting British colonial practices w/liberalism

· British-Indian cultural relationship

¨ Image projected to British citizens at home

Ø Filtered through subjective interpretations

§ Impressions of ignorant bureaucrats

§ Exceptional few who actively engaged culture

¨ British social policy following Crown take-over?

Ø General overall British attitude toward Indians?

§ (civilizing backward & untrustworthy heathen)

§ Macaulay’s assessment (Doc excerpt- p788)

Ø Indian attitude twd Brits & growing nationalism?

Ø From British Crown Raj to Indian Independence

§ The burden of Crown Rule

· Consequences of Revolt of 1857

¨ Pre-1857 vs. after: British officer – enlisted ratio

¨ Impact on Troop levels & funding subsidies

¨ Poisoned atmosphere, hatred & distrust both ways

· Impact of British economic polices

¨ 1/3 GDP to support India’s own military occupation

¨ Along w/population growth=> great strains on poor

¨ Cheap British imports for Indian raw materials

Ø Impact on Indian craft industries & employment?

· Ripon’s attempt to alter racial discrimination- result?

§ Indian Resistance & political activism

· Overall goals & objectives?

¨ Overcome traditional regionalism

¨ Build national feeling & end colonial rule

· Indian National Congress (1885)

¨ Indian modernists role & their Liberal objectives

Ø Reform traditional Hindu & Muslim practices

Ø Change Brit policies awry w/democratic ideals

¨ Others agitated for complete rejection of Brit rule

¨ Congress was largely Hindu dominated

Ø Attitude of Muslims?

· Muslim League

¨ Established to counterbalance Hindu Congress

Ø eventually made common cause w/Congress-why?

§ Quest for Svaraj

Ø League’s ultimate aim? Success at attaining?

· Impact of Indian internal divisions

¨ Major obstacles & divisions hindering independence

Ø Multitude of languages & principalities

Ø Attitude of Indian reps during much of Brit rule

Ø Class/ethnic divisions:(Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, Jain)

· Role of Brit’s erratic legal, political, & tax policies?

· Indian Nationalists Movement takes root:

¨ Three principal elements of Independence movement

Ø 1. Gradual reform & progress toward Svaraj

§ Goal & principal figures & their role

§ The role of Gandhi & his follower Nehru

Ø 2. Militant Hindu nationalism

§ Goal & principal figures & their role

Ø 3. Divergent & regional Muslims

§ Goal & objectives: making up for lost time

§ Role of Ahmad Khan=> modernist & critic

· Opposed Muslim participation in Congress

· Founded Anglo-Oriental College ed. center

· Hindu-Muslim Friction: to 1947 & beyond

¨ 20^th century Hindu-Muslim rift grows wider

¨ Muslim fears of lost communal identity & rights

¨ Role of Muhammad Iqbal- “father of Pakistan”

Ø Muslim separatism

¨ Hindu-Muslim violence & partition

Ø Continuing disputes- Kashmir

Ø Muslim-Hindu Civil War => border disputes

Ø Recent threat of potential nuclear escalation

v The Islamic Experience

Ø Islamic Responses to Declining Power & Influence

§ Weakening Islamic power & growing power of West:

· Military & political power & Imperialistic expansion

· Industrial productivity & Technological progress

§ Reasons for declining Islamic power?

· Rise of West & internal problems

· By 18^th century major Islamic Empires decline:

¨ Mughal, Ottoman, Safavid, Moroccan, Central Asian

¨ Politically, militarily, & economically=>

Ø Decentralized & unstable governments

Ø Entrenched hereditary elite dominated

· Ulama’s new role in government as functionaries

¨ Conservative & legalistic temper- especially Sunni

Ø Commonly identified with state gov. bureaucracy

Ø No longer critical voice of Muslim conscience

· Sufi brotherhood aligned w/particular interests groups:

¨ Identification with Ottoman guilds & Janisaries

¨ Growing integration of Islamic & non-Islamic ways

Ø Cult of personality, esotericism, authoritarianism

§ Centered around role of Sufi masters

· Reaction & response=> attempts to reform & revive?

· Islamic reform movements:

¨ Emphasizing inner piety & puritanical external ways

¨ Aim & impact of the Wahhabis

Ø Fighting excesses of popular & Sufi practices:

§ saint worship & tomb visitation, intercessions

Ø Break Ulama hold & conformists interpretations

§ Legal & religious issues (versus)=>

Ø Exercise of independent judgment=> basis?

§ Role of Qur’an & traditions of Prophets

Ø Role of the House of Sa’ud & Saudi Arabia

¨ Other Muslim Reform Movements to Islamic decline

Ø Similar revivalist aims & militant pietism

§ Usman Dan Fodio of Africa (later)

§ Muslim Brotherhood (modern Egypt)

Ø Aim: divestiture of legal authoritarianism

§ Medieval legal schools’ authority

§ Break with Ulama theological conformity

§ Corrupt Sufi orders & popular piety excesses

Ø Resonates today in response to modern West:

§ Guide to Islamic cultural & religious life

§ Taken to a militant extreme by who?

Ø Western Political & Economical Encroachment

§ Rise of western dominance of Islamic Heartlands

· Role of Britain, Russia, Germany, & France

¨ Growing impact of western rivalries

§ Political & economic concessions to West:

· Extracted capitulations for empty promises

¨ Commercial advantages

¨ Protection & “Extraterritorial” legal status (?)

Ø Exclusive merchant enclaves

· From mutual benefit (1500s) to western pretext=>

¨ Direct intervention: Ottoman, Iranian, Indian, Africa

¨ Exploiting internal disunity=> Ottoman example

Ø Independent pashas & increasing $$$ problems

Ø Western industrial economy & mobile military

¨ Result: West’s exploitation of “sick man of Europe”

· Britain vs. France & Napoleon (Egypt- 1798)

¨ Symbolic beginning of western dominance

¨ British control of India, Persian Gulf, & East Med.

¨ French dominance of larger Middle East regions

· Russia’s challenge to Britain’s colonial empire

¨ Russia’s conquests & growing aspirations:

Ø Black Sea & beyond=> Crimean War (Chapt 26)

Ø The Western Impact

§ Besides political & economic impact of West=>

· Western political ideology, culture, & technology=>

¨ Critical influencing factor changing Islamic society

· Greatest impact: Egypt, Lebanon, Nor. Africa, Anatolia

· Least affected: Iran, Afghanistan, & Central Asia