v Chapter 23 Overview:

Ø Transforming impact of Scientific Rev. & Enlightenment

§ Western science & technology shaped next two centuries

§ Scientific Revolution applied reason to nature:

· (astronomy, health care, military planning & material)

· Impact: gained momentum that challenged other areas

¨ Intellectual concepts & religious traditions of era

¨ Soon would have a global reach beyond Europe

Ø Enlightenment applied reason to what?

§ Fostered movement of people and new ideas=> change

§ With time & acceptance spread call for change & reform

§ Reason & rational thought applied aggressively to society

· Criticized basis of intellectual authority & religion

· Rationality of society could be measured & criticized

§ All society & its traditions placed under rational scrutiny

· Result: spirit of innovation & improvement emerged

¨ Important West. European influence on rest of world

¨ In fact: one of the most important cultural exports

§ Another subtle change: rise in status & worth of individual

· Impact on relationship of individual w/the community

· Source of future conflict and contradiction

v The Scientific Revolution:

Ø Role and impact of major contributors

§ Nicolaus Copernicus

· Ptolemaic System & geocentricism

¨ Aristotelian physics & influence

¨ Theory vs. actual observed planetary movement

Ø Epicycles? => making geocentricism work

· Copernicus’s view of universe

¨ On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres (1543)

Ø Heliocentric theory=> Copernican system=>

§ Immediate & future impact?

§ Tycho Brahe => astronomical observations

· State of the art accuracy => valuable data

· Attitude regarding Copernicus’s Heliocentric theory?

§ Johannes Kepler=> attitude re. Heliocentric?

· Influence of Renaissance Neoplatonists

· Making the math work=> Motion of Mars (1609)

¨ Elliptical orbits vs. epicycles

¨ Creating a new problem=> why elliptical orbits?

§ Galileo Galilei=> “E pur si muove!”

· Dialogues on two Chief Systems of the World (1632)

· Problem raised? Catholic Church’s position? Why?

§ Francis Bacon=> the Empirical Method?

· Collecting data, observation, analysis => conclusion

¨ Experimentation=> Chemistry, biology, life sciences

· Contrast Inductive approach & abstract reasoning

¨ Power of deduction=> Rene Descartes:

Ø “I think, therefore I am” =>

§ From accepted general principle to specific end

Ø Math & physics

· Bacon’s role & actual contribution to scientific method

§ Sir Isaac Newton=> putting it all together

· The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy

¨ Galileo’s influence

¨ Inertial and the role of gravity

Ø Universal gravitation

· Role of Women => fighting artificial limitations

¨ Queen Christina of Sweden & Descartes

¨ Margaret Cavendish (1623-1673)

Ø Challenging the ideas of Descartes & Bacon

§ Observations upon Experimental Philosophy

§ Grounds of Natural Philosophy (1668)

¨ Women connected w/artisan crafts=> contributions?

Ø Society’s confining limits=> husband’s role?

§ John Locke=> behaviorism & the “blank slate”

· Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)

¨ Human behavior is changeable & can be molded

¨ Influences of environment and sense experiences

¨ Tempting fate=> taking charge of man’s own destiny

· Two Treatises of Government (1689)

¨ Limits of government & the King

¨ Contract with the people & their natural rights:

Ø Life, liberty, & property

Ø Consequences of Gov. breaking the contract

· Letter Concerning Toleration (1689)

¨ Each person responsible for own salvation

¨ Governments should not require religious conformity

Ø Exception? (where did Locke draw the line?)

· Lock’s attitude toward science’s accord w/Christianity

¨ Holding true to Christian faith & laws of nature

v The Enlightenment:

Ø The role of the philosophes

Ø Role and impact of major individual contributors:

§ Voltaire=> most influential of the philosophes

· Major literary influence of the period:

¨ Letters on the English (1733)

¨ Elements of the Philosophy of Newton (1738)

¨ Candide (1759)

· Attitude toward potential progress of human society?

¨ Could reform remain permanent once achieved?

¨ Tempered hopefulness vs. pessimistic undercurrent

§ The Encyclopedia=> great monument of period – why?

· Collection of 100+ authors on wide variety of topics:

¨ Critical works on religion, philosophy, politics

Ø How did critics get around censors?

¨ Info on industry, canal & ship building, agriculture

¨ 1751-72: 17 volumes & 11 plates (see Chronology)

· Roles of Denis Diderot & Jean le Rond d’Alebert

¨ Diffusion of ideas throughout Europe

· What period did philosophes (key contributors) revere?

¨ Intellectual & ethical thesis of “encyclopedists?”

Ø Conflict set in motion as a result?

v Enlightenment versus Religion:

Ø Role of the Church & attitude of philosophes

§ Voltaire: “Crush the infamous thing.”

§ Conflicting worldviews:

· Scientific vs. religious view (reason vs. faith)

· Original sin=> meaningful improvement impossible?

· Predestination=> soul’s fate link to virtuous life lived?

§ Church conservation traditions=> doctrinal disagreement

· Tended to promote intolerance & bigotry=>

¨ Past human suffering, torture, and war (Examples?)

Ø Deism=> rational response to faith in God?

§ Philosophes: “religion should be reasonable…” (why?)

· Natural order of nature and its laws (rational)

· Lockean philosophy: limits on human knowledge=>

¨ Empirical experience

· The “watchmaker” concept?

§ Two major points to deist creed?

· Empirical deduction => rational God exists

· Rewards of afterlife correlated w/virtuous life lived

· Deism was: empirical, tolerant, reasonable, virtuous

¨ Assertion regarding fanaticism, conflict, & bigotry?

Ø Toleration vs. violence to protect religious dogma

§ Circumstances surrounding execution of Jean Calas?

· Voltaire’s role?

¨ Treatise on Tolerance (1763)

¨ Public opinion=> reversal of judgment (1765)

§ Nathan the Wise (1779)=> a plea for toleration (thesis?)

· Human life vs. religious priorities?

v Enlightenment and Society=> applying reason to society

Ø Philosophes: reason will reveal human laws similar to what?

§ Physical laws of nature

§ Later=>idea of social science evolves from Enlightenment

· Purpose of discovering social laws?

Ø Montesquieu=> “The Spirit of the Laws” (1748)

§ Assessment of ancient & modern political experiences

· Conclusion drawn? (Impact of many variables)

· Criteria for type of government structure?

¨ Size of political unit & its population

¨ Social & religious customs

¨ Economic structure

¨ Traditions & climate

· Type of government that he believe best for France?

Ø Role of parlements & judicial courts? (how?)

§ Montesquieu’s most influential political idea?

· Division of Power => how was power divided?

· Impact of this political concept? (on what?)

Ø Adam Smith=>ideas on economic growth & social progress

§ The Wealth of Nations (1776)=> radical departure of era

· Dominate role of Mercantilism in Europe’s economy

· How did Smith’s theory contrast? (laissez-faire $$$)

¨ Market Economy vs. Gov. controlled Mercantilism

Ø Term used to describe a market economy?

¨ Role of individual=> supply & demand in the market

§ Smith’s four stage theory of civilizations & its impact?

· Hunting and gathering

· Pastoral or herding

· Agricultural and farming

· Manufacture for wide consumption

§ In what category did Smith place Britain & West Europe?

· Impact on European view toward non-Europeans?

· Used to justify what type of economic & foreign policy?

· Explain Eurocentric vision of history

Ø Rousseau=> Is man born free into chains?

§ How did Rousseau’s worldview differ from majority view?

Ø Rousseau (continued)=>

§ Civilization & Enlightenment had corrupted human nature

· Discourse on Moral Effects of Arts & Science (1750)

¨ Human beings in state of nature were more dignified

· Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755)

¨ Cause of world’s evil? (property maldistribution)-?

§ Questioned predominate idea of material & $$ progress

· Morality of society venerating commerce & industry

· Real purpose of society according to Rousseau?

· How was his vision more radical than other writers?

§ Individual versus the community (which more important?)

· Rousseau’s most famous work? (1762)

¨ Abstract political structure to overcome evil world

· How did work’s thesis contrast with Lock’s view?

¨ Individual’s status & role in community at large?

Ø Maintaining individual freedom as loyal member

Ø Definition of freedom? (Plato & Calvin)

§ Obedience to law => if not=>

· General will always right & must be obeyed

· Majority will force individuals to be “free”

§ Rousseau’s politics provided future justification for=>

· Radical direct democracy & collective action=> who?

Ø Women’s contributions in 18^th century Enlightenment

§ Providing & supporting the environment for discussion=>

· The Salons (plate p. 645)

· Madame Marie-Therese Geoffrin’s role?

§ Prevailing attitude of philosophes toward women?

· Encyclopedia’s editors’ position?

· Rousseau’s attitude as described in Emile (1762)?

¨ Relegated to domestic sphere alone (influence)

¨ Noble vocation of women according to him?

¨ Still had strong following by 18^th cent. women

§ What famous woman author directly challenged his view?

· Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)

· Author’s thesis and main argument? (Doc. p 646)

· How would Rousseau’s view impede human progress?

v Enlightened Absolutism

Ø Enlightened despots => motives?

§ Rational strengthening of central absolutist administration

· Concentration of power in the monarchy

§ Key monarchs associated with this objective:

· Frederick the Great of Prussia

· Joseph II of Austria

· Catherine of Russia

§ Were monarch’s true reformers in Enlightenment spirit?

Ø Frederick II- the Great

§ Frequent discussion & correspondence w/philosophes

· Voltaire at Prussia’s court

§ Author of history and political treatises

§ Only conditional, cautious reform within bounds

· Better life health, education, admin, & economy

· Above welfare reforms secondary to higher priority=>?

§ Objective? More influential diplomatic role in Europe

Ø Joseph II

§ Embodied rational impersonal force for reform

· Personality?

§ Reform objectives: preservation of strong Hapsburg rule

· Carried on reforms of his mother, Maria Theresa

¨ Assure good military recruitment pool

¨ Stimulate prosperity & military strength

· Joseph: more determined & ambitious reforms=>

¨ Lessen Hungarian autonomy (refused crown)

Ø Wanted to avoid coronation oath (why?)

Ø Increased centralized control from Vienna

Ø Impact? (Magyar nobility resistance)

§ 1790 forced to rescind most measures

¨ Religious reforms=> increased freedom for who?

Ø Objective wrt Roman Catholic Church?

Ø How did “Josephinism” anticipate French Rev.?

¨ Abolished legal status of serfdom=> more freedom

Ø Marry and work & train in skilled labor=>

§ Without obtaining permission from whom?

¨ 1789: proposed new & daring land taxation system

Ø Change compulsory service to $$$ taxes

§ split between landlord and the state

Ø Tax reform never implemented- why?

Ø Catherine The Great

§ More politically astute than Joesph II (why?)

· Cultivated political & social support

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